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The comparison is performed ordinally, that is, considering only whether one condition is superior to the other; it does not measure the degree of superiority (unlike the quantification described in the following paragraph). In particular, the VSC first quantifies the number of comparisons (measurement sessions) for which one condition is superior. Afterwards, the VSC compares this quantity to the cut-off points empirically derived by Lanovaz et al. (2019) for detecting superiority greater than one expected by chance. Four or five other children, one teacher, and three teacher assistants were present in the room while the study was conducted.
Results
The alternating treatment design allows for quick adjustments to Charlie’s intervention plan, ensuring that he receives the support he needs to thrive. The percentage of responses in the treatment condition that are more extreme than the most extreme response in a relevant control condition. A baseline is established for several participants and the treatment is then introduced to each participant at a different time.
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Finally, maintenance, generalization, and any subjective opinion expressed by the client or significant others can be considered, along with normative data (if available), to assess the social validity of the results (Horner et al., 2005; Kazdin, 1977). After 29 unsuccessful sessions teaching with the LTM prompt-fading procedure, the targets initially assigned to the LTM condition were taught using the MTL prompt-fading strategy. The targets were taught using MTL prompting for 17 additional sessions, during which the trend was ascending and variable with scores ranging from 30 to 90 % correct; however, James did not reach mastery criterion with these targets.
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Accordingly, to accelerate learning with MTL prompting while keeping the number of errors at minimum, the authors incorporated a 2-s time delay between the presentation of the natural discriminative stimulus and the prompt (Libby et al. 2008). During the 2-s delay, the participants had the opportunity to respond independently, which resulted in skipping prompt-fading steps when a participant made independent correct responses. In the second experiment, the interventionists compared MTL prompting with and without the 2-s time delay. The results confirmed that the MTL procedure with a 2-s time delay was more efficient in terms of trials to criterion while maintaining minimal errors to criterion.
In the following text, we first discuss visual analysis, several descriptive quantitative techniques, and one inferential statistical technique. Next, we provide potential advantages for the proposed quantifications that complement visual inspection of graphed ATD data. Third, in order to enhance the applicability of the techniques and to make possible the replication of the results presented, we describe several existing software for data analysis options. Finally, we illustrate these quantitative data analytic techniques with two previously published ATD data sets.
Type I error rates and power of two randomization test procedures for the changing criterion design
This latency brings into question the assumption that the manipulation of the independent variable is responsible for the observed changes in the dependent variable. It is possible that the observed change may be more appropriately attributed to some factor outside the control of the experimenter. To rule out the plausibility of an extraneous variable, the experimental effect must be replicated, thereby showing that although there may be a delay, changes in the dependent variable reliably occur following changes to the independent variable. This type of replication (within study) is a primary characteristic of SSEDs and is the primary basis for internally valid inferences. On the other hand, there is overlap between the baseline and intervention phases in Panel B of Figure 1, and the overall level of the dependent variable does not differ much between the phases. There is, however, a change in trend, as there is a consistent decreasing trend during the baseline phase, which is reversed in the intervention phase.
Descriptive Data Analytic Techniques
Both MTL and LTM prompting can effectively improve independent responding when compared to baseline levels of responding or control procedures (for a review, see Demchak 1990). A few studies have directly compared the effectiveness and efficiency of these two popular procedures (Libby et al. 2008; McConville et al. 1998; Walls 1981). In all of these studies with the exception of Libby et al. (2008), MTL and LTM procedures were similarly effective; however, efficiency outcomes were variable across participants and different measurements of efficiency. They were interested in how a school-wide bullying prevention program affected the bullying behaviour of particular problem students.
Recent Developments in Group-Sequential Designs
It is possible that in the current study, the LTM procedure may have interfered with acquisition of responses when the MTL procedure was then used. Traditionally, with behavior analytic instruction, children are taught using a specific prompting procedure, and if they do not demonstrate an increase in correct responding, the teaching procedure is changed. The results of the current study suggest that teaching with an ineffective teaching procedure may hinder learning with a more effective teaching procedure, providing preliminary evidence for the need of prompt-topography and prompt-hierarchy assessments early in intervention. Nevertheless, this cannot be derived from this study alone and future research should be conducted to determine the extent to which history of exposure to prompting procedures affects future acquisition. A prompt topography assessment was conducted to identify prompt topographies that evoked correct responding. Ten one-step directions were selected from Teaching language to children with autism or other developmental disorders (Sundberg & Partington 1998).
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There may be a period of adjustment to the treatment during which the behaviour of interest becomes more variable and begins to increase or decrease. Again, the researcher waits until that dependent variable reaches a steady state so that it is clear whether and how much it has changed. Finally, the researcher removes the treatment and again waits until the dependent variable reaches a steady state.
Seaver and Bourret (2014) proposed a different conceptualization of the identification of effective and efficient prompt-fading procedures. To address the variability in efficiency outcomes across studies, the authors developed an assessment for the identification of optimal prompting strategies. The participants were all diagnosed with ASD, and their ages ranged from 7 to 20 years old. The interventionists used forward chaining to teach participants to construct Lego© patterns. First, the authors assessed response acquisition following four types of prompt topographies (verbal, gestural, model, and physical).
However, when directly compared to one another, the efficiency and efficacy of the prompting procedures have been variable. The inconsistencies in the literature could be due to selecting prompt topographies that do not promote correct responding. To address this, the present study began by assessing different prompt topographies and then compared most-to-least (MTL) and least-to-most (LTM) prompt-fading with only prompt topographies that were potent enough to promote correct responding. The subsequent comparison of prompt-fading procedures revealed that MTL prompting was more effective and efficient than LTM prompting for all three participants.
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